Issue 30

E.T. Bowman, Frattura ed Integrità Strutturale, 30 (2014) 7-13; DOI: 10.3221/IGF-ESIS.30.02 12 In comparison, typical mean fragment sizes found in chalk cliff collapse and rock avalanche deposits [7] are shown, giving an approximate value of strain rate that might be expected to be required to generate such a size of fragment. For weak chalk, the strain rate is determined as around 30s -1 , while for limestone the strain rate is around 200s -1 . D ISCUSSION simple approximation of how dynamic strain rates equate to velocity may be determined as: d v D dt   (5) Where v is differential velocity (impulsive, impact or shear) and D is the initial particle size which may be taken as the typical fracture spacing of the intact rock. Typical values are 0.5m for chalk and 1m for limestone. For the analysis of threshold strain to attain dynamic fragmentation, based on Fig. 3, the velocities are therefore 2.8m/s and 45m/s for the chalk and limestone, respectively. Based on a free-fall condition, the chalk would attain such a velocity at 0.4m – in other words, a very small movement in the field is all that is needed to enter the dynamic regime. For the limestone, a velocity of 45m/s is a lower bound of the mean frontal velocities determined for many rock avalanche events and it may not be a coincidence that few rock avalanches with mean velocities low that this value have been recorded. That is, this velocity, as translated to strain rate within the avalanches may signal a minimum to reach dynamic behaviour in typical materials. For the analysis of actual strain rates achieved in typical events that produce the fragment sizes seen (Fig. 4), resultant velocities are 15m/s for the chalk and 200m/s for the limestone. While there are few eyewitness accounts in which quantitative assessments of chalk cliff collapses are available, the value derived for chalk is equivalent to that attained by a free-fall velocity over 11m, which would be a minimum height of fall required. Considering that the cliffs in question tend to be between 20 and 90m and near vertical [10], this accords well with the field condition. For limestone, a 200m/s differential velocity is comparable to mean travel velocities of 45-90 m/s and the observations of boulders being flung out of the mass at much higher speeds – suggestive of internal differential velocities that are higher than the mean [6]. It has further been noted that the fragments that result from dynamic fragmentation possess kinetic energy that is “left over” from the fragmentation process [18]. Such behaviour has been noted also experimentally [17], although there currently does not appear to be any explicit theoretical treatment of how exactly energy is partitioned post-fracture, rather the focus has been on the size and numbers of fragments produced. Following this, the analysis in this paper has determined the threshold strain rates for dynamic fragmentation of chalk and limestone materials and noted that both thresholds are likely to be exceeded for typical field geometries involving long runout. C ONCLUSIONS hile the treatment here of dynamic rock fragmentation using the concepts introduced by Grady [18-19] is highly simplified, applying this approach to rock avalanche behaviour appears to capture some essential mechanisms involved in their propagation. These include, most notably, the strain rate – strength dependency of fragmentation and the dominant fragment sizes as found in field deposits. The results using typical material properties of weak chalk and limestone compare favourably with field observations and help to shed light on why it may be that chalk cliff collapses in weak chalk behave similarly to large scale long runout rock avalanches (and conversely, why stronger chalks would fail to produce the same behaviour). A number of assumptions have been made in the analyses including the conversion of potential / strain energy through breakage at constant strain rate and representing the whole deposit of highly fragmented rock by a single fragment size. Clearly this is a highly idealized representation of reality and further work is needed to develop the analysis in terms of fragmentation behaviour and to show how fragmentation explicitly can lead to long runout. Recent work on fragmentation in ceramics [24], which are closely analogous to rocks, has validated Grady’s energy approach in the limit to reproducing the behaviour of dynamically fragmenting ceramics under complex scenarios, albeit with numerical modifications. Such work provides encouragement to the further development of the approach to examining rock avalanche dynamics. A W